After the Rwandan genocide, Rwanda experienced two waves of returnees: 1) old caseload refugees, who were Tutsis that fled during the genocide, and 2) Hutus that fled in the immediate aftermath, fearing revenge persecution. In response, the Rwandan government implemented a villagization program (imidugudu) which resettled the rural population from scattered homesteads into centralized, government-planned villages. Local officials were offered positive and negative incentives (e.g. promotion, fines) to rapidly meet resettlement targets, which often involved repurposing empty refugee-left houses and forced relocation.